Business Studies (Unit 2) Essays - Marketing, Economy, Business

Business Studies (Unit 2) Measuring Workforce Performance Businesses use three main performance indicators to measure the effectiveness of a workforce . These are: Labour Productivity Absenteeism and Labour Turnover Low productivity and high labour turnove r/absenteeism may imply that a business is under poor management. Businesses should compare these figures over time to look for trend s instead of just examining data from one year or one day. They should then compare the data with industry averages to see if they are having problems . Labour Productivity Productivity is the ou tput per worker over a certain period of time. Measuring productivity is relatively easy in the manufacturing industry because the number of products can be counted, but businesses that offer services struggle to calculate it (eg: hospitals). Labour Productivity does not always come down to who works the hardest . Modern equipment should speed up production and therefore increase productivity. Not all businesses can afford top machinery though, so b etter maintenance, extra shifts and small changes in Kaizen groups may help . A skilled and well-trained workforce may also increase Productivity by producing more at a faster rate, whilst making fewer mistakes. M otivated workers are also more likely to produce more than un-motivated ones. Labour Turnover Labour Turnover is the amount of staf f leaving a business . The formula for calculating Labour Turnover is : Staff leaving per year / average number of staff * 100 = % Turnover Rate If the Labour Turnover rate is increasing, it may be a sign of workforce dissatisfaction. If this is the case, the business should look at whether the causes or internal or external. There are some examples below Internal External Poor leadership More local vacancies Wages are too low Better wages Businesses should make sure they get the right balance of Labour Turnover so that they can enjoy the positive benefits of losing staff without suffering the negative consequences too. Positive Negative New workers bring in new ideas and enthusiasm Additional costs of recruitment and selection New workers are employed with needed skills Additional costs of training new staff There are new ways of solving problems A loss of productivity while new staff settle in Absenteeism As well as Labour Turnover, Workforce Absenteeism can be a good indicator of satisfaction. It can be calculated with the following formula Average numb er of staff absent per day / total number of staff * 100 = % Absenteeism Like with Labour Turnover, businesses should look for trends in Absenteeism instead of focusing on one day. Organisational Structures An organisational structure is the formal way that the manage ment of a business is organised . I t is often presented as a diagram and shows who is in charge of whom. In the early stage of a business, it is not usu ally necessary to have an organisational structure as most of the day-to-day decisions are carried out by the owners. However, as a business grows more people be come involved, so there is a need for a formal structure which shows the roles and responsibilities of each employee. The Level of Hierarchy shows the number of different levels between the top and bottom of the workforce. -26670047688500 The Span of Control refers to the number of people directly under the supervision of one manager . The blue employee on the second row of the Narrow Span of Control is accountable for at least 2 others, so for this business the Span of Control is at least 2. In the wider diagram the Span of Control is at least 5. Advantages (Narrow) D isadvantages (Narrow) Allows close control and managerial supervision Staff may feel over-supervised and untrusted Communication can be good between small teams It may drive away enterprising staff Those at the lower end of the hierarchy have good career prospects in terms of promotions Communication may be slow as there ar e more levels of hierarchy (delayed decisions ) Advantages (Wide) Disadvantages (Wide) Staff are able to make moderate decisions Lower hierarchy workers may become stressed Less management means less overhead costs Managers may feel a loss of power The Chain of Command is the reporting system from the top to

What to See at the 10 Best London Museums

What to See at the 10 Best London Museums SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips London has many attractions, but almost all visitors to the city will carve out time for its world-class museums. Many of London’s museums, spanning history, art, science, and more, contain some of the largest collections in their field, as well as many historical and priceless pieces. Other museums are smaller and more intimate, showing individual stories of Londoners through the ages. This guide explores the ten best museums in London. It’s organized into history museums, art museums, as well as off-the-beaten-track museums. In addition to describing the museum’s collections and standout pieces, the descriptions include each museum’s hours, costs (most of the museums on this list are free!), and the closest tube station to help you get around. London truly has a museum for all types, and this list contains museums that will appeal to history buffs, art aficionados, science geeks, garden lovers, and more. The Best London History Museums London has one of the richest histories of any city. The collections of these museums span prehistory to the modern age, and they showcase artifacts from London, the whole of the United Kingdom, and places, past and present, around the world. Entrance to the Natural History Museum The British Museum Hours: Open daily from 10AM-5:30PM and until 8:30PM on Fridays Cost: Free (Some temporary exhibitions charge a fee) Closest Tube Stations: Tottenham Court Road and Holborn If you can only visit one museum in London, make it the British Museum, the most visited museum in the city and one of the world’s great museums. With roughly 8 million pieces, the British Museum’s massive collection includes works from Europe, Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Oceania, and the Americas. The British Museum specializes in ancient history and has some of the world’s most extensive collections from ancient Egypt, ancient Greece, ancient Rome, Assyria, and Mesopotamia. Two of the museum’s most famous pieces are from their ancient history collections. The first is the Rosetta Stone, used to decipher the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic language, a huge moment in the historical world. The second is the Parthenon Marbles, also known as the Elgin Marbles because they were brought from Greece by the Earl of Elgin. These marbles once adorned buildings on Athen’s Acropolis such as the Parthenon, and there is a longstanding debate on whether they should be returned to Greece. Despite the controversy, the huge marble friezes, adorned with classical Greek sculptures, are beautiful to see. This large museum spans three floors and contains nearly 100 galleries. There are maps inside, but it can be helpful, especially if you’re short on time, to review floor plans of the museum so you know where to go and what to see once you arrive. The British Museum was established in 1753, and in many ways it’s an old-school museum. There are not many interactive exhibits, and most pieces are exhibited in standard glass cases with labels describing their history and importance. This can cause children and non-museum people to get bored after awhile. However, many of the museum’s pieces are so historically important and beautiful to see that every visitor to London should at least stop by for an hour or so to marvel at pieces from all over the world. Additionally, entrance to the museum is free, although some temporary British Museum exhibitions do charge a fee; you can book tickets for these online. Also, the British Museum’s hours are extended on Fridays if you’re looking for something to do in the evening. If you’d like help navigating the museum, there are regular tours held throughout the day focusing on different parts of the collection. Some of these tours are free while others you have to pay for and book online ahead of time. The British Museum’s website has information on all tour times and prices. Museum of London Hours: Open daily from 10AM-6PM Cost: Free (Some temporary exhibitions charge a fee) Closest Tube Stations: Barbican and St. Paul’s For those who want their museum to have a narrower focus, the Museum of London does an excellent job of chronicling the history of the city from the prehistoric age to modern day. The museum has a large collection, with over 6 million objects, but because it only focuses on the history of London, as opposed to the history of many world regions, it can feel more straightforward and less overwhelming to visit. There is only one route through the galleries which take you in chronological order through London's history. The exhibitions start with prehistoric London and include part of a 200,000-year-old mammoth jaw, a 6,000-year-old axehead made from jadeite, and an Iron Age chariot decorated with intricate Celtic-style designs. The galleries then continue through the history of London, covering the Roman era, Medieval London, the Black Plague, the Great Fire of London, the Victorian era, the Industrial Age, modern London, and more. Each gallery contains numerous artifacts from the time period it covers. In fact, the Museum of London contains the world’s largest urban history collection. Some highlights of the museum include a large collection of Medieval jewelry, the death mask of Oliver Cromwell, and the Lord Mayor’s State Coach from the 18th century. The Museum of London is highly interactive with quizzes, touchscreens, props to try on, and recreations of Victorian streets and pleasure gardens that visitors can walk through. Appropriately, the museum is located within one of the oldest parts of the city, a few blocks from St. Paul’s Cathedral. The building (which has plans to move within the next few years) is flanked by the remains of a Roman wall, so you’ll be looking at historical objects before you even set foot in the door. Imperial War Museum Hours: Open daily from 10AM-6PM Cost: Free (Some temporary exhibitions charge a fee) Closest Tube Stations: Waterloo and Elephant Castle Spanning the start of World War I to present day, London’s Imperial War Museum puts a human face on the impacts of war and armed conflicts. Though the museum now has exhibits on all modern armed conflicts Britain and the Commonwealth have been involved in, it originally only covered World War I, and this period is still a major focus of the museum. When you enter the museum, you’ll be greeted by multiple large military artifacts, including tanks, guns, and aircraft hanging from the ceiling. The most extensive galleries in the museum, on the first and second floors, cover World War I and World War II. To show the effect war had on individuals and to make its impact more personal and relatable, the museum presents stories and artifacts from individual people instead of focusing primarily on strings of numbers or lists of battles. Individual stories from both the front lines and the home front are included. The collection includes letters written to and by soldiers, trench art, souvenirs brought home from battles, and historical photographs, as well as large collections of badges, weapons, and uniforms. Highlights include a rifle owned by Lawrence of Arabia, a pistol of Winston Churchill’s, and a Union Flag recovered from the wreckage of the World Trade Towers. As you move to the upper floors, the tone gets noticeably darker. Galleries cover atrocities of the Holocaust, the history of antisemitism in Europe, and modern warfare and ethnic violence. This is not a museum for children (the Holocaust exhibition is restricted to visitors ages 14 and older), nor is it a museum for people looking for a light and cheery way to spend an afternoon. However, the Imperial War Museum does an extremely moving job of covering some of the most important periods in world history. Natural History Museum Hours: Open daily from 10AM-5:30PM Cost: Free (Some temporary exhibitions charge a fee) Closest Tube Station: South Kensington It’s famous for its dinosaurs, but the Natural History Museum covers nearly the entire breadth of the world of science. It has over 70 million specimens organized into five main collections: botany, entomology, mineralogy, paleontology, and zoology. The Natural History Museum is one of the most eminent science museums in the world, and its collections include specimens collected by Charles Darwin, exhibitions of dinosaur fossils, and a life-size model of a blue whale. Within the museum’s 36 galleries, visitors can view thousands of specimens, learn about the human body, study geologic forces that shape the Earth, and marvel at dinosaur fossils and full-size models. The Darwin Centre Cocoon, where guests can watch scientists at work in the labs, is also a popular spot to visit. The museum is housed in a large, ornate building dating back to the mid-1800s; some visitors simply drop by to marvel at the architecture. With such an expansive collection spanning several centuries, the Natural History Museum can provide a bit of an inconsistent experience. Some of the older exhibits, like some of the taxidermy and animal models, have a slightly dated look. Newer exhibits, particularly those on dinosaurs, human biology, and volcanoes and earthquakes, are much more modern and interactive. In general, though, the Natural History Museum is a favorite among visitors to London. If you’re tired of reading labels, it’s easy to simply walk through the galleries and admire the specimens. Kids in particular are always impressed by the large models of animals that are a standout attraction at the museum. The Best London Art Museums London's museums are a mecca for art lovers. These three art museums each have some of the largest and most prestigious art collections in the world. From traditional galleries lined with paintings to avant-garde fashion exhibitions, these museums have it all. Ophelia by John Everett Millais, on display in the Tate Modern The National Gallery in London Hours: Open daily from 10AM-6PM and until 9PM on Fridays Cost: Free (Some temporary exhibitions charge a fee) Closest Tube Stations: Charing Cross and Leicester Square Housed in a large Classical building that dominates Trafalgar Square, the National Gallery of London is the city’s most-visited art museum. The museum displays over 2,300 Western European paintings dating from the 1200s to 1900. The collection includes masterpieces from numerous periods including the late Medieval period, Renaissance Italy, and French Impressionism. Museum highlights include Sunflowers by Vincent Van Gogh, The Virgin of the Rocks by Leonardo da Vinci, and The Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck. There are also pieces by Botticelli, Michelangelo, Raphael, Titian, Rembrandt, Goya, Monet, and Renoir, among many others. The National Gallery follows standard art museum conventions: priceless paintings displayed attractively in different galleries without a lot of extra frills. Art enthusiasts will love the variety and quality of the works displayed and could happily spend a week viewing the collection, and even people not normally interested in art should stop by to check out the highlights. This museum contains London’s (and one of the world’s) most prestigious collections of art. However, if the thought of spending hours looking at centuries-old paintings doesn’t inspire much excitement, you may want to keep your visit short and move onto other activities after you’ve viewed the most important pieces. The National Gallery also hosts regular lectures, holiday events, and concerts, as well as guided tours (most of these charge an admission fee). Victoria and Albert Museum Hours: Open daily from 10AM-5:45PM and until 10PM on Fridays Cost: Free (Some temporary exhibitions charge a fee) Closest Tube Station: South Kensington If the National Gallery represents the apex of what a traditional art gallery can achieve, the newly refurbished Victoria and Albert Museum (the VA) is a much more modern take on an art museum. The VA is dedicated to decorative arts and design, and its collection spans seven floors and 150 galleries. Works include paintings, photographs, textiles, jewelry, architecture, ceramics, and glass. The museum includes pieces spanning 3,000 years and multiple continents. There’s a huge breadth of pieces here, and you may find yourself wandering past Japanese suits of armor, 16th-century Persian rugs, gilded German writing cabinets, newly created glass pieces commemorating the British Antarctic expedition, and a collection of over 2,000 miniature paintings, to name a few. The VA is a great museum to visit if you’re not interested in the traditional oil painting-filled art galleries. Its diverse collection means each gallery has something different, and the museum’s extensive renovations have given it a clean, modern look. In addition to the works in the galleries, other pieces of interest include a massive glass chandelier hanging from the ceiling in the entrance and a courtyard with a fountain and wading pool. If you have an entire day (or week) to spend at the museum, you may be content to wander the galleries and see what you discover, but many visitors may want to scan an overview of the museum’s collections beforehand so they know what they want to see when they arrive. Tate Modern Hours: Open daily from 10AM-6PM and until 10PM on Fridays and Saturdays Cost: Free (Some temporary exhibitions charge a fee) Closest Tube Stations: Southwark and Blackfriars The Tate Modern is London’s standout gallery for modern and contemporary art. Situated along the bank of the Thames, the Tate Modern picks up where the National Gallery leaves off, showcasing works of art from 1900 to the present day. Unlike the National Gallery; however, the Tate Modern doesn’t only contain paintings. There are also photographs, sculptures, videos, mixed media, and architectural pieces. Some of the most popular pieces include a looming spider sculpture by Louise Bourgeois, Ophelia, a painting by Sir John Everett Millais, and works by Henri Matisse, Andy Warhol, and Georgia O’Keefe. The museum is housed in a former power station, and the building retains much of its original industrial feel. In stark contrast to the Classical buildings of many other London museums, in the Tate Modern visitors will make their way past massive former oil tanks and a soaring turbine hall. While admission to the permanent galleries of the museum is free, the Tate Modern also has frequent temporary exhibitions and performances which do require an admission fee. Visitors who aren’t particularly fond of modern art may find some of the Tate’s pieces confusing or boring. However, come with an open mind and this is one of the best museums in the world to get a taste of the breadth and quality of what modern and contemporary art can offer. You may leave a newly-converted modern art lover. Best Off-the-Beaten-Track Museums in London These are less-known, typically small museums that provide a very different experience than the most famous London museums. They generally focus on how individuals lived in London and, unlike the above museums, some of them charge admission fees. The entrance to the Geffrye Museum Leighton House Museum and Art Gallery Hours: Open Wednesday-Monday from 10AM-5:30PM. Closed Tuesdays Cost:  £7 for adults,  £5 for concessions (discounts) Closest Tube Stations: High Street Kensington and Kensington (Olympia) It’ll be hard to get an audience with the queen while you’re in London, but anyone can get a glimpse of one of the city’s most opulent interiors if they visit Leighton House. The building was once of the home and studio of Victorian artist Lord Frederic Leighton, who filled the house with his own pieces and works of art he gathered during his travels. Though it looks fairly ordinary from the outside, the interior of the house is so sumptuous it’s like walking around a jewelry box. While there are Victorian elements such as gilded and carved columns, antique wooden furniture, and marble work, the highlight of the house is its bold Middle Eastern decorative style. The house’s showpiece is the Arab Hall, a two-story extension decorated with glittering Middle Eastern tiles collected by Leighton. The house also contains stained-glass windows, an extensive collection of paintings and sculptures, elaborate paintwork, a gilt-painted dome, and, to top it all off, a fountain in the middle of the house. If you’re tired of seeing art displayed individually in plain glass cases, this is a great museum to see how one of London’s elite incorporated works of art into his home. Geffrye Museum Hours: Open Tuesday-Sunday from 10AM-5PM. Closed Mondays. Cost: Free Closest Tube Stations: Hoxton Station (London Overground) Located in Shoreditch, London, and easily reached by taking the Overground (as opposed to the tube), the Geffrye Museum is housed in a series of attractive 18th-century almshouses. Like the Leighton House, it’s a former home converted into a museum, however; instead of focusing on one man’s expensive tastes, the Geffrye Museum explores the history of typical middle-class homes from 1600 to present day. The rooms go in chronological order so visitors can see how houses have been decorated throughout the centuries. However, the highlight of the museum is outside. The grounds of the museum are surrounded by period gardens that showcase the changes lawns have undergone during the same time period the museum’s rooms cover. There are also herb gardens and walled gardens to see. Scattered throughout the gardens are benches and chairs for visitors to relax in, as well as an onsite cafe. Unlike many museums, the Geffrye Museum doesn’t have a â€Å"must-see† piece. Instead, take in the homey experience the entire museum offers. The gardens are best from April to October and, during this time, the Geffrye Museum is a great place to enjoy a rare sunny day in London and take a break from spending time indoors. Foundling Museum Hours: Open Tuesday-Saturday from 10AM-5PM and Sunday 11am-5PM. Closed Mondays. Cost:  £8.25 for adults,  £5.50 for concessions (discounts) Closest Tube Station: Russell Square For an in-depth look at one of the more unique and poignant sides of London’s history, check out the Foundling Museum. This museum tells the history of the Foundling Hospital, which was founded in 1739 as England’s first hospital for abandoned children. It covers the founding of the museum, the circumstances of mothers who had to abandon their children, how they handing-over process worked (each mother left their infant with a token, such as a button or piece of cloth, to later identify the child if she ever returned), how the children were cared for, and the museum’s current charity work. Visitors to the museum will see record books used to record children who came into the hospital, notes on which mothers were deemed â€Å"acceptable† to leave their children there, schoolbooks and uniforms used by the children, and tokens left behind by children whose mothers never returned. The museum also contains a diverse art collection, with numerous paintings and sculptures lining the rooms and hallways. Most of these were done by 18th-century artists who donated the works themselves to help support the hospital. Visitors can also see the preserved 18th-century interiors from the original hospital, period furniture, and a collection of Handel memorabilia (Handel was a prominent fundraiser for the hospital during his lifetime). Additionally, the museum frequently has temporary exhibitions that show art related to women and children. The Foundling Museum movingly tells the story of one of the less-discussed parts of London’s history, and it’s an excellent place to visit for people interested in learning about both art and history. This is a small museum that can be visited in an hour or two. However, there is a lot of text to read within the rooms if you want to get the complete history of the hospital, so if you’re looking for an easy stroll through exhibits, it may not be the best choice.

Letter of recomendation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Letter of recomendation - Essay Example [Your name] was a highly demanded dental assistant amongst other dental students and applicants at my office. This difficulty can serve as a testament to her level of dedication and the impression she constantly had on other dental experts at the hospital. Second, [your name] carried out many procedures as a dental assistant since her official enrollment in April 2011. These tasks ranged from implants and bondings to x-rays and extractions. Even though these procedures are routine for a dental assistance, the results exhibited by [your name] surpass those of other dental assistants in the facility. For instance, [your name] only repeated x-rays when there was the x-ray machine was faulty or the patient was very nervous or uncooperative. In addition, [your name] partook in various root canal seminars and the dental digital program tutorial seminar. Clearly, [your name] made use of her determination and duties towards fulfilling the expectations of the admission requirements of a student from a standard dental school. Third, [your name] developed multiple understanding and serene relationships with my patients while working in my office. I value these bonds because in fact learned a great deal about the role of a dental assistant during diagnosis, treatment, and even recovery. Moreover, [your name] seemed to enjoy acquiring more personal and relevant information about my patients before and during treatment largely because he concerned a lot over their quick recovery. [Your name] told me that building strong relationships with my patients helped hasten their treatment and recovery. Lastly, [your name] facilitated a very friendly and peaceful workplace because of compassionate coworker relationships. I observed [your name]’s expression of a responsible and determinant attitude towards her job as a dental assistant and colleagues. [Your name]’s arrival from Cuba in 2011 was met by the

The Grammar Of Words Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Grammar Of Words - Essay Example There are various ways the numbers can be transformed from singular to plural. In the case of the ones provided in the question, the answers are: one syllabus, many syllabuses or syllabi; one ox, many oxen; one fish, many fish or fishes; one antenna, many antennae or antennas; one hippopotamus, many hippopotamuses or hippopotami; one octopus, many octopuses; one nucleus, many nuclei; and one focus, many focuses or foci. We notice in the nouns above that in the cases of syllabus and octopus the word end in -es. In the other cases it ends with -en for ox, and -i for nucleus. In the cases of syllabus, fish, antenna, and hippopotamus, these words in plural end with -s or -i and the speaker is free to pick his choice. Nonetheless, English is easy because of the limited consonants and vowels. Any learner finds it easy to pick the language and begin to use it as soon as he begins to learn it. However, the problem is when the learner gets to grammar, the rules could be complex and the learner can get confused at the initial stages.

Pro and Anti Social Behaviour Essay Example for Free

Pro and Anti Social Behaviour Essay a) Outline two psychological theories of aggression (12 marks) b) Evaluate two theories of aggression that you outlined in part a) in terms of relevant research studies (12 marks) a) Outline and evaluate two psychological theories of aggression (24 marks) Aggression is an example of anti-social behaviour. It has been defined as any form of behaviour directed towards the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such harm. Social Psychological theories of aggression These explain aggression as a result of social interactions Social Learning Theory (SLT) One of the most influential theories of aggression is the Social Learning theory put forward by Bandura (1973). The nature of the theory suggests human aggression is learned either through direct experience or by observing aggressive behaviour in other people i. e. indirect experience. Bandura produced two assumptions in relation to the social learning theory. He stated that if a child acts aggressively against another child and as a result gets what they want, their aggressive behaviour has been reinforced. This is an example of learning by direct experience, derived from the principles of the traditional learning theory; operant and classical conditioning. Secondly, he stated that if a child observes another person behaving in an aggressive manner, they may imitate that behaviour them selves, particularly if they see the model reinforced for behaving in that way. This is an example of vicarious experience. Results from Banduras studies have shown that children are more likely to imitate models if they are similar to themselves, have some kind of status or who are seen to be rewarded for their actions. He also applied these factors to his Social Learning theory. Bobo Doll study Bandura (1961) Support for the Social Learning theory comes from studies using Bobo dolls (an inflatable toy). This was conducted by Bandura et al (1961). He carried out a study where Nursery school children watched a film where an adult model behaved aggressively or non-aggressively towards a Bobo doll. The adult model displayed some distinctive physical acts of aggression, for example kicking it and using verbal aggression such as Pow! Following this, the children were taken to a room and shown attractive toys that they were forbidden to play with. This created a sense of frustration within the children. They were then taken to a room containing a Bobo doll and other toys and were then rated for the amount of aggression they showed. Bandura found that children in the aggressive condition reproduced the physical and verbal behaviours modelled by the adult. In contrast children in the non-aggressive condition showed very little aggression towards the doll. This shows that children can acquire aggressive behaviours from watching the actions of others. Evidence that supports the Social Learning Theory Further research evidence has been carried out in relation to aggression which supports Banduras theory. Silvern and Williamson (1987) investigated the effect video games have on aggression. They found that aggression levels in children increased after playing violent games. This suggests that this was due to imitation or modelling. However, the study lacks validity because it only identifies short term aggression, not long term aggression therefore, it does not prove any permanent effects. Furthermore, Margeret and Mead (1935) studied aggression in relation to cross cultural differences. She studied three New Gunea tribes and found that each tribe behaved different in terms of aggressive tendencies. This suggests that the fact that some societies were more aggressive than others supports the role of social learning in aggression. However, the fact that the men were relatively more aggressive in each society suggests that some aspects of aggression are biologically determined. Evidence that challenges the Social Learning Theory However, this theory has been challenged by a number of psychologists. Johnston et al (1977) carried out another study in which he found that children who behaved most aggressively towards the doll were the ones rated by the teachers as most violent generally. Also, Durkin (1995) suggested that Bandura made no distinguish between aggressive behaviour and play fighting. These studies therefore suggest that the findings from the Bobo Doll study lack reliability. In addition, the study has ethical issues as it encourages aggression in children. Furthermore, the situation is unlike a lot of real-life modeling as hitting a doll is no the same as hitting a person. This leads to the assumption that Bandura over exaggerated the extent to which children imitate the behaviour of models. This also leads to the criticism that the study lacks ecological validity due to its artificial setting; therefore the results may not apply to real life. Also, some critics argue that the children were manipulated into responding to the aggressive movie. This was because the children were teased and became aggressive because they could not touch the toys. Finally, there is a problem that the study suffers from high demand characteristics due to the children being given cues how to behave, resulting in the participants to behave in certain predictable ways. Alternative theories Alternative social psychological theories of aggression have also been produced, challenging the idea that aggression is solely based upon imitation, modelling and reinforcement. Deindividuation theory One of these is the Deindividuation theory proposed by Zimbardo (1969). Deindividuation refers to the loss of a sense of personality identity that can occur when we are for example, in a large crowd or wearing a mask. We then become more likely to engage in anti-social, un-socialised behaviour. Zimbardo (1969) distinguished between individual behaviour, which conforms to acceptable social standards, and deindividuated behaviour, which does not conform to societys social norms. He claimed that people dont normally act aggressively because they are easily identifiable in societies that have strong norms against aggressive behaviour. Being anonymous (and therefore effectively unaccountable) in a crowd has the consequence of reducing inner restraints and increasing behaviours that are usually inhibited. According to Zimbardo, being in part of a crowd can reduce awareness of our own individuality. In a large crowd, each person is faceless and anonymous (so the larger the group, the greater the anonymity), reducing the fear of negative evaluation of our actions and a diminishing the sense of guilt. Therefore, individuals feel less constrained by the norms of social behaviour and as a result, they may be more inclined to act in an anti-social way. This is supported by Mann (1981) who found evidence of Deindividuation in the baiting crowd (crowds who frequently baited a potential suicide victim to jump). Mann found that baiting increased under conditions which increased the anonymity of the crowd (e. g. numbers, darkness and distance from the victim). This therefore supports the claim that deindividuation increases aggressive behaviour. The deindividuation theory is also supported by Zimbardo (1969) who left abandoned cars in New York and a small town in California. He found the abandoned car in the big city was stripped and vandalised very quickly whereas the one in the small town was left alone. This suggests that the larger the group, the more anonymous the individual is and, consequently, the more extreme the antisocial behaviour becomes. Futhermore, Zimbardo (1963) conducted a study specifically to demonstrate the effects of deindividuation on aggression. Participants were asked to shock a confederate. Some were deindividuated (wore a hood, no names were used and they sat in a dimly lit room) and others were easily identifiable (they wore name tags and sat in a bright room). The findings showed that the deindividuated students administered the most shocks, i. e. were most aggressive, suggesting that deindividuation plays a role in producing anti-social behaviour. However, the major difficulty with using Deindividuation as an explanation for aggression is the fact that it does not always lead to aggression. In some circumstances it can lead to high levels of pro-social behaviour, for example wearing a nurses uniform. Overall Evaluation Overall, the Social learning theory can account for the fact that a persons aggressive behaviour may not be consistent across different situations. It may be reinforced in some situations, but punished in others (context-dependant learning). Furthermore, studies carried out into video games and aggressions are consistent with the Social Learning theory. However, alternative explanations such as the biological explanation (e. g. levels of testosterone are linked to aggressive behaviour) challenge the view that social learning is the primary causal factor in aggression. In addition, the social learning theory is limited in scope because aggression doesnt just depend on observational learning. This is supported by cross cultural evidence which demonstrates that some aspects of aggression are innate. Effects of environmental stressors on aggressive behaviour Use for: Describe and evaluate research (theories or studies) into the effects of two or more environmental stressors on aggressive behaviour (24 marks) A number of environmental factors have been identified as triggers for aggression. Some of these possible environmental features are temperature, overcrowding and noise.

Tupac Shakur - His Impact on American Culture Essay -- Tupac Amaur Sha

Tupac Shakur - His Impact on American Culture Tupac Shakur was a very influential person in the 20th century. He was born on June 16, 1971 in Brooklyn New York, and died on September 13, 1996 in Las Vegas Nevada (unknown author, no title, no page, letter code C). But his family moved around a lot while he was a kid (Bastin, J.D.). He eventually ended up in the Bay Area California alone and spent his first two years there homeless (unknown author, no title, n.p., letter code D). He grew up with only his mom and loved her very much. He even wrote a song called Dear Mama to his mom and thanked her for how she tried her best at raising him. His public career started when he joined the seminal Bay Area rap ensemble (u.a., "original area," n.p.). He started as a tour dancer but then started rapping live (u.a., "original area," n.p.). From there he released a couple albums and then was offered to be in some movies. He became friends with a couple of popular rap artists like Snoop Doggy Dogg and Dr. Dre (Placid n.p.). He made some songs and music videos with them that made it big on the Billboard charts. This really helped his popularity. He released a double CD with the songs on it and a lot of his own songs and sold millions of copies (u.a., n.t., n.p. letter code D) More people were influenced to buy his CD. People listened to the music and did what he said he did. So Tupac was influencing all of these people. Tupac was rich and famous now. He was showing off his own style now and didn't need his popular friends. This is the time that many people saw the real Tupac and loved him. He was now very influential to fans. They wanted to be just like him. He starred in more movies and could be who he really was. He did a lot of interviews that showed his beliefs. He said self esteem and self respect was very important and said "I feel as though I am a shining prince just like Malcolm and feel that all of us are shining princes, and if we live like shining princes, then whatever we want can be ours. Anything." (Patrick, Tony, n.p.) And when he says all of us, he means all men. He also said he doesn't care if someone is white or black. And no one can be judged by their skin. "So just because it's Black don't mean it's cool, and just because it's White don't mean it's evil."(Patrick, Tony n.p.) If he judged a man, he judged them by what they do ... ...nds for a new beat really separated his music from others. He didn't use traditional beats that people get tired of. He added a twist to rap and hip-hop music all together. And brought a lot of people to like that. "Tupac was one of raps most controversial and influential performers" ("tupac" n.p.). "Tupac Amaur Shakur left a distinct impact on American culture that is still being shown today" (u.a., n.t., n.p. letter code D) He was one of the most influential persons in the 20th century America. And I believe he will be remembered and loved by a lot for years to come. He has served and will serve as a role model for younger kids growing up today. Bibliography Bastin, J.D. "Tupac Interviews & Articles" http://www.u.arizona.edu/~bastin/interview.html 22/10/97 Patrick, Tony Shakur, Tupac. "Interview" http://.stallion.jsums.edu/~awil0997/tupac/interview.html 22/10/97 Placid, Sylvester. Personal Interview 10/11/97 Unknown Author. "Original Area of Tupac" http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/7438/tupac.html 22/10/97 Unknown Author. "Tupac" http://stallion.jsums.edu/~awil0997/tupac/theday.html 2/11/97 Unknown Author. http://www.duke.edu/~de1/2pac2.html 2/11/97

Comparative Study Between Waiting for Mahatma and Kanthapura

TITLE :- COMPARISON BETWEEN THE IMAGES OF ‘GANDHI’ IN KANTHAPURA AND WAITING FOR THE MAHATMA Name :- Purbita Bhattacharya M. A. 1ST SEMESTER ROLL :- ME 110042 PAPER – 2 SUPERVISED BY :- PROF. CHANDRANATH ADHIKARY The novel WAITING FOR THE MAHATMA deals with the story of a young man named Sriram whose life revolves round the influence of Mahatma on him during the years of Indian Freedom Struggle. In his age of twenty he meets a girl named Bharati, an ardent Gandhi follower and was collecting money for some funds. Her life is pretty much revolving around Gandhiji and his movement.By presenting Mahatma realistically in town Narayan has portrayed a concrete image of Gandhi. The people of Malgudi can see Gandhi, can touch him and even can spend time with him by attending his lectures and the shavas. Narayan, here, through this novel has shown the down-to-earth image of Gandhi. He comes to town, moves on his own whims and fancies, does not stay at the guest house nor wi th the rich persons, and prefers to stay in the untouchable colony, gives speeches and also meets with people. Even in this novel we are shown that Bharati takes Sriram to meet Gandhiji. And Sriram is told to do what Bharati tells him.She becomes his ‘Guru’. Later, Sriram moves to cave in hills, gets deeper into the Quit India Movement, tries to force the marriage issue with Bharati but gets rejected. Then he gets involved with a terrorist called Jagadish – who is wanted by the police. He visits his grandmother in disguise who survives a death scare and is rescued off dramatically in her funeral pyre when her toes start wiggling. Then Sriram gets arrested at the burial grounds and goes to jail. His only solace is that Bharati is also in jail somewhere. In jails he meets many different types of criminals and is finally released after the British leaves India.Then he again meets Bharati who invites him to Delhi. He there proposes her again and they seek the blessin g of Mahatma who promises to perform their wedding himself on the very next morning. On the next morning they go to the prayer meeting where a person rushes up to the stage to the Mahatma and shoots him. â€Å"WAITING FOR THE MAHATMA† dwells on the freedom struggle, the Mahatma and his ways, and the kind of an impact he had on the youth in those days. By the physical presence of Gandhi, Narayan brings up many arguments through different characters, those who embrace a violent route and those who follow Gandhiji.But such was the power of his conviction that they followed him and his words to death. â€Å"Love the enemy, and then will he change†, said Gandhiji and they all tried to love their enemy. They practiced non-violence, spun the charka and made khadi, shunned all foreign things, behaved like true Satyagrahis – all at an age when they would hardly understand the true importance of what they are doing. Gandhiji’s take on untouchability is shown impact ing Sriram as he wonders how his grandmother ill treats the boy who comes to clean the road.The much sacrifices were demanded from the youth and his followers, and they did try to be the perfect examples of what Gandhiji had asked for them. The Abstractness of Gandhi’s Image in â€Å"KANTHAPURA† by Raja Rao Till now we were concentrating on the concrete image and impact of Gandhi through Narayan’s â€Å"WAITING FOR THE MAHATMA†. Now in comparison with this image I have chosen â€Å"KANTHAPURA† , by Raja Rao, which also shows the impact of Gandhi on the villagers but not by his physical presence, but by the presence of Gandhi in the villagers’ mind.They have never seen Gandhi, but they are familiar by the name of Gandhi as the image of ‘God’. â€Å"KANTHAPURA† is also a document of the National Struggle of India for Independence. The man, who is struggling and bringing out the image and influence of Gandhi to the villager s, is Moorthy. Like â€Å"WAITING FOR THE MAHATMA† , â€Å"KANTHAPURA† was also written before Independence and is dealing with the magic of Gandhianism that changes India from a somnolent to an unquestionable battle ground for British Raj. Kanthapura is a village as traditional and self sufficient as any other Indian village.But the first sign of disturbance comes from outside but is brought to them by their own beloved Moorthy – a Gandhi-man. The villagers’ love for Harikatha is gently subverted by him and made into a tool to spread the message of nationalism and Gandhi’s principle. Jayaramachar, a popular harikatha singer sings the myth of Gandhi and his divinely task of driving the ‘red man’ from our land. Slowly the entire community warms up against the British rule. With the principle of non violence sullied by the villagers Moorthy – like the Mahatma – undergoes fasting, ritualistic purification in temple.Raja Rao has presented Gandhiji as a myth to the villagers of Kanthapura. Gandhi, was like the mythological character to them. They have not seen Gandhi, but Moorthy seems to them similar to Gandhi. In him the villagers can find out their Gandhi. So that at the last phase of the novel we can see that Moorthy has been mythicised like Gandhi by his village people. The Comparative Study between the Gandhian Impact on both â€Å"WAITING FOR THE MAHATMA† and â€Å"KANTHAPURA† :- Gandhi is often being cited more as a matter of form and convenience than a deep conviction.The Gandhian impact on contemporary Indian literature has brought about results at various levels, and in various direction. As regards the writer’s choice of language, we have seen that one result of the Gandhian influence has been a general preference for the mother tongue or the regional language, and occasionally a purposeful bilingualism, the same writer handling his mastery his own mother tongue as well a s English.Besides whatever the language medium chosen, the stress has been more on simplicity and clarity and immediate effectiveness than on ornateness or profundity or laborious artistry, and this has been as marked in English writing as in writing in the regional languages. As regards the choice of themes and the portrayal of character, the Gandhian influence has been no less marked. There has been a more or less conscious shift of emphasis from the city to the village, or there is implied a contrast between the two – urban luxury and sophistication on the one hand and rural modes and manners on the other.R. K. Narayan, however makes Gandhi himself a character in â€Å"WAITING FOR THE MAHATMA†. Gandhi materially and directly affects the fortunes of Narayan’s heroine – Bharati, and her lover Sriram; and the novel ends with Gandhi’s death at the hands of an Asian on the way to prayer. Whereas Raja Rao has made Gandhi a mythical aspect in his novel â€Å"KANTHAPURA†. The villagers of Kanthapura sacrifice their all while following the Gandhian ideology. They were betrayed. Because Gandhiji, after meeting with the Viceroy, withdrawed the Boycott. But still they followed the way of Gandhianism towards Nationalism.CONCLUSION:- In both the novels by these contemporary writers we can see that Gandhiji laid stress again and again on moral and spiritual values in contrast to material achievement, although this had its place too; he knew that too much industrialization must spell disaster to the seven lacks of Indians villages; and he adopted the loin cloth and the Sevagram way of life because he felt that, for the teeming millions of Indians, no other life is possible – yet he knew that even such bare colourless life could be made reasonably full and purposive.Although for at least 60 years, at least Gandhi has been the subject of biographical and expository studies – J. J. Doke’s M. K. Gandhi : The Man Wh o Became One with the Universal Being followed 15 years after the approach of the Gandhi birth cenetary had understandably stimulated of late a greatly increased flow of Gandhian literature. Mahatma Gandhi : 100 years , edited by S.Radhakrishnan, was brought out by the Gandhi Peace Foundation in 1968, and contained numerous tributes by Gandhi’s friends and admirers, all over the world. While several contributors – Rajaji, Richard B. Gregg, Swami Ranganadhananda, B. N. Rau, G. Ramachandran – have tried to stress one or another aspect of Gandhi’s life and personality, many others have bemoaned the fact that Gandhianism is hardly a live force in India today.